The conference will focus on three key areas, including implementing emissions reduction targets, delivering climate finance to developing countries, and strengthening adaptation and resilience, with the aim of turning commitments made at previous climate summits into tangible outcomes, according to the organizers.
UN Climate Change Executive Secretary Simon Stiell said at the opening session that 90 percent of large renewable projects are now cheaper than fossil fuels, warning that “progress is nowhere near fast or fair enough.”
Highlighting the severe economic fallout, Stiell said this year’s “fossil fuel cost chaos has delivered a global shockwave, hitting households hard and spreading inflation like a cancer.” He called for delivering on adaptation finance, tripling global renewables capacity, and slashing super-polluting methane emissions.
COP31 President and Turkish Environment, Urbanization and Climate Change Minister Murat Kurum outlined several initiatives, including a “Climate Implementation Bridge” aimed at connecting climate projects with investors and a “35-by-35 Global Electrification Pledge” seeking to raise electricity’s share of global energy consumption to 35 percent by 2035.
Meanwhile, Australian Minister for Climate Change and Energy Chris Bowen, who serves as COP31 president of negotiations, highlighted inequalities in access to climate finance, saying, “The countries that need climate finance the most are getting it the least.”
To address this issue, Bowen pointed to an “Access to Finance Statement and Action Plan” for vulnerable nations, stressing that “finance must be disbursed faster. More simply. And more fairly.” He promised a concrete, action-oriented final decision by the end of the conference.
The conference, which runs through Nov. 20, brings together government officials and representatives of international organizations, research institutions, businesses and non-governmental organizations from nearly 200 countries and regions, organizers said.
A robot performs in front of the China Pavilion at the event venue of the 31st United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP31), in Antalya, Türkiye, Nov. 9, 2026. The 31st United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP31) President and Turkish Environment, Urbanization and Climate Change Minister Murat Kurum speaks during the opening session of the COP31 in Antalya, Türkiye, Nov. 9, 2026.
The call was made by the Prime Minister during the opening of the high-level segment of the 38th Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol (MOP38), held in Kigali on November 5, 2026.
Addressing delegates, the Prime Minister said that although the Kigali Amendment marked a major achievement in global efforts to phase down hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), countries must now focus on translating their commitments into tangible results.
The Kigali Amendment was adopted in Kigali in 2016, bringing countries together around efforts to reduce the use of hydrofluorocarbons, which contribute to global warming.
The Prime Minister said its adoption demonstrated the ability of the international community to respond collectively to emerging global challenges while taking into account the different circumstances and development needs of individual countries.
He noted that fully implementing the amendment would make a significant contribution to protecting the climate and the well-being of present and future generations.
Quoting President Paul Kagame, who set out expectations following the adoption of the amendment, the Prime Minister recalled his call for countries not to settle for limited progress when greater results were achievable.
“We should not allow ourselves to be satisfied with making a little bit of good progress when it is within our power to actually solve the problem,” President Kagame said at the time.
The Prime Minister stressed that the success of international commitments should be measured by their impact on people’s lives, rather than by the agreements countries sign.
He explained that access to cooling goes beyond comfort, playing an important role in healthcare, food preservation, economic opportunities and communities’ ability to cope with extreme heat.
For farmers, reliable cold storage can help preserve agricultural produce and prevent losses after harvest. In healthcare, it ensures that vaccines and essential medicines reach communities, including those in remote areas.
He also warned that access to cooling can be a matter of life and death for people exposed to increasingly severe heat, particularly vulnerable populations.
However, reliable cooling remains out of reach for millions of people, especially in Africa, where electricity access is still limited or unreliable.
The Prime Minister said growing demand for cooling must be addressed through energy-efficient and climate-friendly solutions that support efforts to expand electricity access, strengthen resilience and create economic opportunities.
He emphasised that the transition should not be limited to replacing one technology with another, but should also involve developing the infrastructure, skills and industries required for countries to benefit fully from sustainable cooling.
Rwanda, he said, is already contributing to these efforts through the Africa Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Cooling and Cold-chain (ACES), established in the country with a pan-African vision.
The centre brings together research, training, technology development and practical application to advance sustainable cooling and cold-chain solutions.
The Prime Minister further highlighted the importance of South-South cooperation and broader international partnerships, saying countries need to pool expertise, resources and experience to address challenges that cannot be resolved individually.
He said developing countries should be active participants in shaping the transition to sustainable cooling rather than simply being expected to adapt to decisions made elsewhere.
Looking ahead, he urged countries to build on the progress made since the adoption of the Kigali Amendment a decade ago by strengthening their commitments and expectations.
He called for the full and timely implementation of existing commitments, alongside increased investment in infrastructure, skills and technologies that can make sustainable cooling affordable and accessible.
“The next decade must be defined not merely by the commitments we make, but by the results we deliver,” he said.
The 38th Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol runs from November 2 to 6, 2026.
Exhibitions showcasing sustainable cooling technologies, research and innovations form part of the 38th Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol (MOP38), taking place in Kigali from November 2 to 6, 2026.Prime Minister addresses delegates during the opening of the high-level segment of the 38th Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol (MOP38) in Kigali on November 5, 2026.Delegates attend the 38th Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol in Kigali, bringing together countries to advance global efforts to protect the ozone layer and address climate change.
The forecast, released on November 1, covers weather conditions from November 1 to 10.
According to the national weather agency, rainfall during this period normally ranges between 25mm and 106mm, while the expected amount could reach 120mm this year.
Rain is expected between four and six days, depending on the area.
Musanze, Nyabihu and Ngororero districts are forecast to receive the highest rainfall, ranging from 90mm to 120mm.
Heavy rainfall is also expected in large parts of Rubavu, Rutsiro, Gakenke, Rusizi, Nyamasheke and Nyamagabe districts, as well as some areas of Nyaruguru, Karongi, Huye, Muhanga and Burera.
Other parts of the Western Province, alongside some areas in the Southern and Northern provinces, are expected to receive between 60mm and 90mm of rainfall.
Most parts of Kigali City and some areas of Bugesera, Rwamagana, Gatsibo and Nyagatare districts are forecast to receive between 45mm and 60mm.
The remaining parts of the country are expected to record between 30mm and 45mm.
Meteo Rwanda attributed the expected rainfall to the convergence of winds from the Northern Hemisphere towards the region, alongside winds originating from the Indian Ocean.
The agency also forecast wind speeds ranging from four to 12 metres per second across different parts of the country.
Stronger winds, reaching between eight and 12 metres per second, are expected particularly in parts of Karongi, Ngororero, Rutsiro, Rubavu, Nyabihu, Nyamagabe, Muhanga, Ruhango and Kamonyi districts.
In response to the forecast, Meteo Rwanda urged residents to take precautions against possible damage from heavy rain accompanied by strong winds, while following instructions issued by the Ministry in charge of Emergency Management (MINEMA).
Regarding temperatures, daytime conditions are expected to range between 20°C and 30°C, while night-time temperatures will vary between 10°C and 19°C.
The highest daytime temperatures, ranging from 28°C to 30°C, are expected in Bugesera District, most parts of Kigali City, Eastern Province districts, as well as parts of the southern region and Bugarama Valley.
The lowest daytime temperatures, ranging from 20°C to 22°C, are forecast in parts of Musanze and Nyabihu districts.
Meteo Rwanda urged residents to regularly follow weather updates and guidance from emergency management authorities to minimise the risks associated with heavy rainfall and strong winds.
Meteo Rwanda has forecast rainfall ranging from 30mm to 120mm across the country during the first 10 days of November 2026.
The meeting comes ten years after the adoption of the Kigali Amendment in October 2016, when countries agreed in Rwanda’s capital to expand the scope of the Montreal Protocol by introducing measures to gradually reduce hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), powerful greenhouse gases widely used in refrigeration and air conditioning.
Here is what to know about the international agreement, its achievements and the issues expected to feature in Kigali.
What is the Montreal Protocol?
The Montreal Protocol is an international environmental treaty established to protect the Earth’s ozone layer by phasing out the production and consumption of chemicals responsible for its depletion.
It was adopted on September 16, 1987, in Montreal, Canada, and entered into force on January 1, 1989.
The ozone layer, located in the Earth’s stratosphere, absorbs most of the Sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation, helping protect humans, animals and plants from its effects.
The treaty was introduced following scientific evidence linking chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), commonly used in refrigerators, air conditioners, aerosol sprays and foam products, to the thinning of the ozone layer.
It subsequently introduced legally binding controls on nearly 100 ozone-depleting substances, requiring countries to gradually phase them out.
What has it achieved?
The Montreal Protocol is widely recognised as one of the world’s most successful environmental agreements, having led to the global phase-out of 99% of controlled ozone-depleting substances.
The reductions have put the ozone layer on a path to recovery.
According to the World Meteorological Organization’s 2025 assessment, ozone levels are expected to return to 1980 values by around 2040 across most of the world, 2045 in the Arctic and 2066 over Antarctica, provided current policies remain in place.
The agreement has also contributed to climate change mitigation because several of the substances it controls are potent greenhouse gases.
Participants attend a workshop marking ten years of the Kigali Amendment at the Kigali Convention Centre on November 1, 2026.
What is the Kigali Amendment?
The Kigali Amendment is an addition to the Montreal Protocol, adopted on October 15, 2016, during the 28th Meeting of the Parties in Kigali, Rwanda.
It introduced measures to phase down HFCs, which were increasingly being used as alternatives to CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances because they do not damage the ozone layer.
However, HFCs contribute significantly to global warming, with some having thousands of times the warming potential of carbon dioxide.
Under the amendment, countries committed to reducing HFC production and consumption by 80–85% over the coming decades, following different implementation schedules for developed and developing countries.
The amendment entered into force on January 1, 2019. According to UNEP, its full implementation could prevent up to 0.5 degrees Celsius of global warming by the end of the century.
As of August 2026, 174 of the 198 parties to the Montreal Protocol had ratified the Kigali Amendment.
Why is sustainable cooling receiving attention?
The transition away from high-global-warming refrigerants is taking place as demand for cooling continues to grow worldwide.
Air conditioning and refrigeration are increasingly important for food storage, healthcare, vaccine preservation, agricultural supply chains and digital infrastructure.
However, conventional cooling equipment can consume significant amounts of electricity, while refrigerant leaks contribute to greenhouse gas emissions.
The global stock of air conditioners is projected to increase from 1.6 billion units in 2018 to 5.6 billion by 2050, making energy efficiency and access to climate-friendly cooling technologies important priorities.
What is expected at MOP38?
The Kigali meeting will provide an opportunity for countries to review progress in implementing the Montreal Protocol and its Kigali Amendment, strengthen commitments and encourage universal ratification of the amendment.
Ahead of the meeting, Rwanda, Brazil and the United Kingdom launched the Friends of the Kigali Amendment in New York in September 2026, alongside a Ministerial Communiqué outlining priorities for stronger implementation, energy-efficient cooling, refrigerant management, financing, technology and partnerships.
The initiative also includes a philanthropic strategy and a US$100 million funding goal to accelerate implementation.
In the lead up to the MOP38, Ahead of MOP38, Kigali hosted a workshop marking ten years of the Kigali Amendment, alongside two preparatory meetings: the 77th meeting of the Montreal Protocol’s Implementation Committee (ImpCom77), held on October 30–31, and the Bureau meeting of the 37th Meeting of the Parties, held on October 31.
Speaking at the opening of the anniversary workshop, on November 1, Minister of Infrastructure Damien Shyaka stressed the importance of improving the energy efficiency of cooling equipment alongside the transition to climate-friendly refrigerants.
“Changing the gas while leaving the equipment inefficient would therefore address only part of the problem. This is why energy efficiency must become an integral part of the Kigali Amendment implementation,” he said.
The MOP38 programme also includes a separate technical workshop focusing on technologies, skills development and sustainable cooling and cold-chain systems. MOP38 brings together around 1200 participants.
Minister of Infrastructure Damien Shyaka speaks during the opening of a workshop marking ten years of the Kigali Amendment in Kigali on November 1, 2026.The workshop marking the tenth anniversary of the Kigali Amendment brought together participants to discuss progress in implementing the agreement and the future of sustainable cooling.
The study, published in the journal National Science Review, suggests that magma under extreme pressure can absorb additional oxygen beyond what its usual chemical composition would predict.
The findings could help scientists better understand how Earth’s interior, volcanic activity and atmosphere have interacted over geological time.
The research was led by scientists from the Center for High Pressure Science and Technology Advanced Research in China, working with colleagues from Northwestern Polytechnical University and Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam.
To investigate the process, the team recreated conditions found deep inside Earth in laboratory experiments.
They heated a synthetic form of mid-ocean ridge basalt, a volcanic rock, at temperatures between 1,200 and 1,800 degrees Celsius and pressures reaching seven gigapascals.
At the highest pressure, the material contained more than five per cent excess oxygen by weight when platinum oxide was added to create an oxygen-rich environment.
Samples tested under similar conditions without the added platinum oxide contained much lower amounts, between 0.2 and 0.5 per cent.
The researchers used Raman spectroscopy to check whether the extra oxygen was present as trapped gas bubbles.
They found no detectable evidence of oxygen gas, suggesting that the additional oxygen had become part of the glass structure formed when the molten samples cooled.
Computer simulations supported the experimental findings, showing that magma’s capacity to hold excess oxygen increases with pressure.
The models also suggested that oxygen atoms can form different chemical arrangements as more oxygen enters the melt.
The team proposes that magma formed in oxidised parts of Earth’s mantle could absorb extra oxygen deep underground.
As magma rises towards the surface and pressure falls, some of that oxygen might be released and participate in chemical reactions affecting the mantle, crust and atmosphere.
This possibility may be relevant to a period between about 2.5 billion and two billion years ago, when atmospheric oxygen increased significantly and large volcanic regions formed.
The researchers calculated that if ancient eruptions released excess oxygen equal to just 0.27 per cent of the magma’s weight, the theoretical amount could equal the oxygen currently present in Earth’s atmosphere.
However, this calculation does not prove that volcanoes supplied that oxygen. Further research is needed to determine how much oxygen natural magma can carry and how much could reach the atmosphere.
The findings may also help researchers investigate the evolution of other rocky planets and the conditions that allow habitable environments to develop.
Researchers have found that magma deep inside Earth can store additional oxygen under extreme pressure, potentially offering new insights into the planet’s atmospheric evolution.
The newly identified species, Yuezhuornis yangyuanensis, lived during the Late Jurassic period, approximately 150 million to 148 million years ago.
Researchers say its unusual combination of bird-like bones and features associated with predatory dinosaurs provides evidence that early bird evolution followed more diverse paths than scientists had understood.
The fossil was discovered in the Zhenghe Fauna, a fossil-rich area in Fujian Province, by researchers from the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Fujian Institute of Geological Sciences.
According to a study published in the journal Nature, the crow-sized animal had closely spaced, serrated teeth resembling those of small meat-eating dinosaurs.
It also possessed a curved, sickle-shaped claw on its second toe, a feature associated with predatory dinosaur groups closely related to birds.
“When we examined Yuezhuornis, we were struck by its extraordinary mix of features,” said Min Wang, the study’s corresponding author.
“It possesses bird-like pelvic and hindlimb structures yet retains the specialized predatory foot and teeth of a small meat-eating dinosaur. It shows us that early bird evolution was far more complicated than we previously realized,” Wang added.
Researchers analysed the fossil’s skeletal proportions and compared them with those of other prehistoric animals to determine how it may have moved.
The results showed that its limb proportions resembled those of modern ground-dwelling birds and certain prehistoric relatives of birds.
This suggests that Yuezhuornis was adapted to life on the ground and was probably unable to fly.
The researchers describe the species as the earliest known example of a bird lineage losing its ability to fly, indicating that flightlessness emerged among early birds much earlier than previously recognised.
To establish its evolutionary position, scientists used two analytical methods to compare anatomical characteristics and estimate relationships among prehistoric species.
Both approaches placed Yuezhuornis within Avialae, the evolutionary group that includes modern birds and their closest extinct relatives.
The findings suggest that early birds were not simply evolving towards increasingly efficient flight. Instead, different species were adapting to distinct environments and lifestyles, including those suited to life on land.
Researchers say further discoveries from the Zhenghe fossil deposits could help clarify how early birds diversified and developed the wide range of forms seen throughout their evolutionary history.
A reconstruction of Yuezhuornis yangyuanensis, a 150-million-year-old bird whose dinosaur-like teeth and claw and apparent inability to fly are providing new insights into early bird evolution.
The systems, installed by HomeBiogas Ltd with support from the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), serve households in Rwamagana, Ngoma and Gatsibo districts.
UNDP handed over the systems to provincial authorities on October 20, 2026, at a ceremony in Rwamagana District. Of the beneficiaries, 500 households are in Rwamagana and Ngoma, while 437 are in Gatsibo.
The technology converts cow dung into gas for cooking, while the residue can be used as organic fertiliser.
For beneficiaries, the change has brought practical savings and reduced dependence on firewood.
Nyirantura Saverina, who lives in Muhazi Sector, Rwamagana District, said her children previously spent long hours collecting firewood, despite being in school.
“Before I got biogas, my children, who were in school, often spent the whole day looking for firewood. I did not have a forest where I could send them to collect it,” she said.
Nyirantura was selected for the programme after project representatives visited her home and found that she kept two cows in a clean, well-built shed and fed them properly.
She said the system had made it easier for her children to prepare breakfast before school without being exposed to smoke from traditional cooking methods.
“In the morning, a child wakes up, puts water on the gas stove while sweeping, and prepares tea or porridge. They drink it and go to school without smelling of smoke,” she said.
She added that the technology had also eased household chores.
In Gatsibo District, Kamanzi Johnson said biogas had substantially reduced his family’s expenditure on firewood. His household previously spent about Rwf10,000 a month buying it.
“Since we got biogas, the amount of firewood we use has decreased significantly. I would say we now use only between 10% and 20% of what we used before,” said Kamanzi, who also helps other residents learn how to use the systems.
Eastern Province Governor Pudence Rubingisa, who received the systems on behalf of the three districts, said the programme offered a practical way to expand access to clean cooking energy while making productive use of animal waste.
He called for proper maintenance of the systems and further expansion to reach more households.
UNDP Resident Representative in Rwanda, Fatmata Lovetta Sesay, said the programme was designed to improve household welfare alongside expanding access to clean energy.
She noted that biogas could reduce exposure to harmful cooking smoke, ease the burden of firewood collection on women and girls, and enable farmers to use livestock waste as fertiliser.
Sesay said the project had demonstrated the potential of biogas as a sustainable cooking energy source, but stressed the need to extend its benefits to more households.
Senior Technical Adviser at the Ministry of Infrastructure, Gen. B. Cesar, said the project’s success would depend on more than the number of systems installed. Their continued functionality, households’ ability to use them properly and the durability of the benefits would also be important measures of progress.
Project partners agreed on a plan to provide ongoing support to beneficiaries, including repairs, monitoring and maintenance of the systems.
The ceremony also featured findings from a study examining biogas’s role in reducing methane emissions. The study was conducted in collaboration with the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the Rwanda Environment Management Authority (REMA).
Equity Bank and other private-sector partners participated in discussions on financing mechanisms to extend clean cooking solutions to more households.
Eastern Province has Rwanda’s largest livestock population but is also frequently affected by drought. Converting animal waste into cooking fuel offers an opportunity to make productive use of locally available resources while reducing reliance on firewood.
The programme forms part of Rwanda’s broader efforts to expand access to clean cooking energy, reduce greenhouse gas emissions and address climate change.
Senior Technical Adviser at the Ministry of Infrastructure, Gen. B. Cesar, said the project’s success would depend on more than the number of systems installed. UNDP Resident Representative in Rwanda, Fatmata Lovetta Sesay, said the programme was designed to improve household welfare alongside expanding access to clean energy.Eastern Province Governor Pudence Rubingisa, who received the systems on behalf of the three districts, said the programme offered a practical way to expand access to clean cooking energy while making productive use of animal waste.
Named Vasuki indicus, the extinct reptile lived during the Middle Eocene, a period when parts of the world experienced warmer climates than today.
Its estimated length of between 10.9 and 15.2 metres would make it comparable to Titanoboa, a prehistoric snake believed to have reached approximately 13 metres.
The fossils were discovered at the Panandhro Lignite Mine in Kutch, Gujarat, western India.
Paleontologists Debajit Datta and Sunil Bajpai of the Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee identified the species after examining 27 fossilised vertebrae, the bones that form a snake’s backbone.
Although researchers did not find a complete skeleton, the unusually broad vertebrae provided clues about the animal’s size.
Estimates based on comparisons with modern snakes produced different results, leaving uncertainty about its exact length.
Scientists therefore cannot confirm whether Vasuki was larger than Titanoboa, which lived in what is now Colombia around 60 million years ago.
The researchers believe Vasuki was a thick-bodied animal that probably relied on ambush rather than speed to capture prey.
Its hunting strategy may have resembled that of modern anacondas and pythons, which use their muscular bodies to overpower animals.
However, its exact diet and hunting behaviour remain uncertain because the available fossils provide limited evidence about how it lived.
The ancient snake inhabited a region characterised by warm, tropical conditions, with average temperatures estimated at approximately 28 degrees Celsius.
Because snakes depend on external heat to regulate their body temperature, such conditions may have supported the growth of large reptiles.
Nevertheless, scientists say temperature alone cannot explain gigantism, as food availability, habitat and evolutionary history also influence animal size.
Vasuki indicus belonged to Madtsoiidae, an extinct family of snakes that existed for roughly 100 million years and whose members lived across several continents, including Africa, Asia, Europe and Australia.
The discovery provides further evidence of the diversity of prehistoric snakes and helps researchers understand how ancient reptiles evolved and spread across different regions.
The findings were published in Scientific Reports in 2024, with the fossils offering a rare glimpse into India’s ancient ecosystems and the enormous predators that once inhabited them.
An artist’s illustration of Vasuki indicus, an extinct snake that lived in India approximately 47 million years ago and may have reached up to 50 feet in length.
A team led by researchers at the US Department of Energy’s Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, together with scientists from SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory and several universities, has captured key stages of a reaction known as proton-coupled electron transfer, or PCET.
The findings, published in Nature Communications, provide a more detailed picture of how electrons and protons move during chemical reactions and how the surrounding water molecules respond at the same time.
PCET is important in several natural processes. Plants rely on related reactions during photosynthesis to capture energy from sunlight and convert it into stored chemical energy.
Similar processes also contribute to biological energy conversion and chemical catalysis.
The researchers found that changes within a molecule’s electronic structure occur alongside changes in the surrounding water environment as the molecule gains a proton.
Observing these events has been difficult because electrons and protons move extremely quickly, while nearby water molecules are constantly shifting.
Previous experiments could examine individual parts of the process, but scientists had not been able to obtain such a detailed combined view of the molecular and surrounding structural changes.
To investigate the reaction, the researchers used a well-studied ruthenium-based molecule that absorbs light and, under acidic conditions, captures a proton from its surroundings.
They then combined ultrafast X-ray spectroscopy with time-resolved X-ray scattering.
The techniques allowed them to examine changes in the molecule and the rearrangement of atoms in the surrounding solvent. Advanced computer simulations were also used to interpret the complex measurements.
The experiment did not directly detect the proton itself. Instead, researchers observed changes in the molecule’s electronic structure and the surrounding water network and used theoretical calculations to understand how those changes were connected.
Elisa Biasin, an experimental chemical physicist at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, said the work provides a new way to understand how molecules and their surrounding environments change together during chemical reactions.
The researchers believe the technique could eventually help scientists better understand and control chemical processes involved in energy conversion.
A clearer understanding of these reactions could contribute to the development of more efficient catalysts, fuel cells and flow batteries, as well as other technologies designed to convert or store energy.
The researchers describe the work as an important step toward studying more complicated proton-coupled electron transfer reactions and understanding how electrons, protons and their environments interact on extremely short timescales.
Ultrafast X-ray techniques allowed researchers to observe how electrons, protons and surrounding water molecules interact during a rapid energy-transfer reaction.
In its weather outlook issued on October 5, 2026, Meteo Rwanda forecast rainfall ranging between 90 and 300 millimetres during the month, which is above the normal average for October.
Daytime temperatures are expected to range between 20°C and 31°C, while nighttime temperatures will range from 9°C to 19°C.
The country is also expected to experience moderate winds that could occasionally become strong, with speeds ranging between four and 14 metres per second.
The expected heavy rainfall will increase soil moisture in many parts of the country. Meteo Rwanda said this is expected to benefit agricultural activities during the 2027 Season A planting period and contribute to increased water availability.
The agency noted that soil moisture had declined in some parts of the country in September 2026 due to below-average rainfall, but is expected to improve in October as more rain falls.
September recorded below-average rainfall
Meteo Rwanda reported that most parts of the country received below-average rainfall in September 2026.
Of the 44 stations used to analyse rainfall during the month, 40 recorded below-average rainfall, while only four recorded above-average rainfall.
Rainfall totals in September ranged from 1.2mm to 124.6mm. The highest amount was recorded at Ntendezi in Nyamasheke District, with 124.6mm, while the lowest was recorded in Nyamata, Bugesera District, with 1.2mm.
In Kigali, Kigali International Airport recorded 38.1mm of rainfall, while the Gitega station in Nyarugenge District recorded 47.1mm.
Meteo Rwanda said the low rainfall in September affected land preparation and crop planting activities for the 2027 Season A, as well as livestock farming due to reduced pasture and water availability.
The rainfall expected in October is expected to improve soil moisture and water availability, supporting agriculture and livestock farming, particularly crop planting activities.
Meteo Rwanda urged residents to continue following weather updates issued at different intervals, including six-hourly, daily, five-day, seven-day and 10-day forecasts.
The Rwanda Meteorology Agency (Meteo Rwanda) has forecasted above-average rainfall in October
