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{{Artificially created blood could one day replace donations as the norm for blood transfusions.}}

That’s according to researchers at the University of Edinburgh who have been using stem cells to create red blood cells.

And in 2016 they are planning to conduct a groundbreaking trial that, for the first time, will test artificial blood made from stem cells in patients.

The £5 million project is being pioneered by the University of Edinburgh and comes after years of research into growing red blood cells.

{{How is the Blood Made?}}

The process involves using adult skin or blood cells that have been genetically modified into stem cells, known as induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells.

These iPS cells are then cultured in biologic conditions that mimic the human body, eventually leading to their transition into mature red blood cells.

The trick so far has been increasing the efficiency of this transition process, as not all the cells are capable of becoming red blood cells.

The red blood cells are then separated from the rest of the cells in a centrifuge.

Their next step will be to trial the blood in patients in 2016.

The process involves using adult skin or blood cells that have been genetically modified into stem cells, known as induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells.

These iPS cells are then cultured in biologic conditions that mimic the human body, eventually leading to their transition into mature red blood cells.

The trick so far has been increasing the efficiency of this transition process, as not all the cells are capable of becoming red blood cells.

The team at the University of Edinburgh has got this efficiency to approaching 50% in a process that takes about a month.

The red blood cells are then separated from the rest of the cells in a centrifuge.

Their next step will be to trial the blood in patients in 2016.

This will most likely be three patients who need regular transfusions due to a red blood cell disorder known as thalassaemia.

According to Professor Marc Turner, artificial blood could replace donated blood as the norm for transfusions in the next 20 years

Ideally, artificial blood would be made from a person of the rare universal blood type ‘O’ as this can be transfused into other patients of any blood type.

‘Producing a cellular therapy which is of the scale, quality and safety required for human clinical trials is a very significant challenge,’ says Professor Marc Turner, medical director at Scottish National Blood Transfusion Service (SNBTS) who is leading the study for the University of Edinburgh.

‘But if we can achieve success with this first-in-man clinical study it will be an important step forward to enable populations all over the world to benefit from blood transfusions.

‘These developments will also provide information of value to other researchers working on the development of cellular therapies.’

It was stressed, however, that it will be at least 20 years until artificial blood overtakes donated blood as the source for blood transfusions and that people should not stop donating any time soon.

If artificial blood does one day become the norm, however, it is hoped the cost of blood per unit could drop from the current price of £120.

Artificial blood may also carry with it health advantages due to blood regeneartion.

Blood cells last around 100 days but not all cells are born at the same moment, so donated blood is a mixture of old and new cells.

Artifical blood, on the other hand, would be entirely new blood cells.

The major problem at the moment is scaling up production from a trial to industrial levels.

Nonetheless if the trial proves to be a success, it would be a big step in the right direction towards making blood transfusions more widely available at a reasonable cost.

{This graphic shows how the artificial red blood cells are made from stem cells in the team’s research}

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{{The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) is warning countries to step up monitoring, reporting and prevention of one of the world’s most destructive banana diseases, Fusarium wilt, which recently spread from Asia to Africa and the Middle East, and which has the potential to affect countries in Latin America.}}

The TR4 race of the disease, which is also known as Panama disease, is posing a serious threat to production and export of the popular fruit, with serious repercussions for the banana value chain and livelihoods, FAO said in an information brief.

Banana is the eighth most important food crop in the world and the fourth most important food crop among the world’s least-developed countries, according to FAOSTAT, the UN agency’s data-gathering and analysis service.

“Any disease or constraint that affects bananas is striking at an important source of food, livelihoods, employment and government revenues in many tropical countries,” said Gianluca Gondolini, Secretary of the World Banana Forum.

The Forum, whose Secretariat is based at FAO headquarters, promotes sustainable banana production and trade.

“The spread of Fusarium wilt banana disease could have a significant impact on growers, traders and families who depend on the banana industry,” Fazil Dusunceli, a plant pathologist at FAO, said.

“Countries need to act now if we are to avoid the worst-case scenario, which is massive destruction of much of the world’s banana crop,” said Dusunceli.

{{Recommended action }}

At the country level, FAO specifically advises:

Awareness raising at all levels and adoption of appropriate risk assessment, surveillance and early warning systems;

Implementation of phytosanitary measures to prevent the spread of the disease through agricultural practices, irrigation and drainage systems, transportation, vehicles, containers, tools or visitors;

Preventive measures, including quarantines, the use of disease-free planting materials, prevention of movement of infected soil and planting materials into and out of farms, and disinfection of vehicles;

Capacity building in National Plant Protection Organizations (NPPO) in planning, extension and research, including the use of rapid and accurate diagnostic tools;
Training of technical officers, producers and farm workers in disease identification, prevention and management under field conditions, and appropriate instructions to visitors.

While other races of the disease have existed for many years, TR4 has caused significant losses in banana plantations in Southeast Asia over the last two decades, and has recently been reported in Mozambique and Jordan.

TR4 infects the Cavendish banana varieties, which dominate global trade, as well as other susceptible varieties used for local consumption and markets. Despite damage to the banana plant and to production, the fruit itself remains edible.

{{Soil-borne disease }}

Fusarium wilt is caused by the fungus Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense (Foc). The disease is soil-borne and the fungus can remain viable for decades.

Once the disease is present in a field, it cannot be fully controlled by currently available practices and fungicides.

The best way to fight the disease is to prevent its spread, which includes avoiding movement of diseased plant materials and infected soil particles.

“We need to raise awareness of this threat, coordinate efforts among countries and institutions for effective implementation of appropriate quarantine measures, and also work with banana producers, traders, plantation employees and smallholder farmers to help to minimize the spread of the disease,” Dusunceli said.

He also highlighted the importance of research in better understanding the disease and developing alternative varieties that are disease resistant.

FAO’s information note stresses the importance of using disease-free seedlings and avoiding movement of infected soil and planting materials into, and out of, farms, through transportation, visitors or other means.

“A concerted effort is required from stakeholders including the industry, research institutions, governments and international organizations to prevent spread of the disease,” the note reads.

{{Raising awareness }}

FAO and its partners, including the World Banana Forum (WBF), the scientific community and the banana industry are among those making efforts to increase awareness of the inherent threat of TR4.

The issue will be on the agenda of a series of upcoming meetings in Kenya, South Africa, and Trinidad and Tobago, with the aim of addressing a range of issues related to TR4, including developing action plans for its prevention, monitoring and containment.

The banana crop is vulnerable to a number of diseases in various parts of the world, including the Black Sigatoka disease, Xanthomonas Wilt (BXW), Bunchy Top Disease (BBTD) and Fusarium Wilt, but Fusarium’s soil-borne nature makes it especially challenging.